Historical Document · 1835
A Theoretical and Practical Treatise on Malting and Brewing
- brewing
Historical Document · 1835
A THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL TREATISE MALTING AND BREWING. By GEORGE ADOLPHUS WIGNEY,. e Brewer, OF BRIGHTON, SUSSEX. “To copy Nature, Natare's laws must be obeyed.” SECOND EDITION, IMPROVED, BRIGHTON: PRINTED FOR THB AUTHOR, BY PHILLIPS AND CO., POPLAR PLACE. 1895. LIS: Digitized by Google PREFACE, ——990e~ lt is said. that superficial readers seldom read a Preface or Introduction, so anxious are they to get at the body of the work. They wish to taste the marrow without the trosble of breaking the bone. : . But all authors have a motive for writing a Preface, —and so have I! Mine is principally to recommend the reader to peruse most attentively the Introduction, because it contains a small portion of that information which he should be possessed of, before he can under- stand and duly appreciate the merit or demerit of the work itself ; because that little may awaken a desire to obtain a better and more ample supply from other and more copious sources, and because, without the pos- session of which, and much more, neither maltster or brewer, I conceive, can properly understand, or prove competent to conduct his business to the best ad- vantage. “ There is no royal road to learning.” The reader may suppose that I am both willing and able to show him a short and easy way to a perfect system of malting and brewing ; but if he does, he will find himself much mistaken, Willing I should be, if I was but able! But never having yet found the person or the book from which I could discover it myself, it would be highly presumptuous and disingenuous in me to assume a capability not pretended to by others, and which I iv ‘eonceive to be impossible for any one to perform. 1 aim at nothing more than to furnish, in as clear, ex- plicit, and unreserved terms as I can, all the expe- rience which I have been able to obtain on these subjects, during twenty years’ assiduous and nnremit- ting research and enquiry, in every Treatise written expressly or indirectly upon them, which [ have been able to obtain or hear of; such as Works on Malting and Brewing, Distillation and Chemistry; and to which have added (what I conceive to be) much valoable inforthation, both theoretical and practicdl, which is not to be found in any work that I have ever yet met with, and which are the results of personal observations, experiments, and discoveries, At about twenty-six years of age, without any pre- vious knowledge of the business, I received a month’s instructions in brewing, for a premium, from a person who passed current as a good practical brewer, and thought myself a very clever fellow, beeause, on the first occasion after he left me to act for myself, I brewed a guile of ale, the product of which cost me three'‘halfpence per gallon less than the cost of such as my instructor had brewed forme. Buta few difficulties promptly met with very soon brought me to my senses, aud enabled me to discover, that I had learnt much error, and but little truth ; and have since been twenty years eradicating the prejudices inculcated in one month; in unlearning a bad system, and gradually grafting upon it a better; induced and urged on by the best of all instructors, ‘* necessity.”* I'should not have thus much adverted to myself, but for the purpose of furnishing an example of the cir- cumstances under which too mahy commence the ‘brewing business, both at an earlier and later age than at which I began, without any previous suitable ‘chemical education; taught by a person himself no 4, v better taught ; instructed to pursue a practical system such as he had learnt, without rule or explanation to reveal the why and wherefore; a mere blind teacher of the blind; a stranger to causes, and ignorant of many important effects; a detester of theory, and an admirer of only one practical system, and that one his own, Both malting and brewing are chemical operations, and to attain to proficiency in the art, an extensive knowledge of theoretical chemistry, and a slight portion of practical, is necessary. Well grounded in such science, the practitioner becomes acquainted with the laws of Nature, studies her admirable process in germination, vegetation, and fermentation, and takes her as his pattern and guide, and endeavours to imitate her as closely as he possibly can, in the several as- similating operations he is required to perform, He knows her seasons, and adopts them as his own, as well as circumstances admit ; and when compelled to take an inauspicious period for the accomplishment of any operation, he views the dangers, ascertains the difficulties, and by the aid of art accommodates his practice to the occasion, endeavouring thereby to realise the results that he might ‘calculate upon in a more propitious season. Although the author is fully aware what are the requisite attainments, yet he is perfectly conscious that he does not possess them to a desirable extent, or sufficient to render him a competent instructor of others; yet such as he is, he presumes to offer to those who have made less progress than himself in the path of improvement, such information as he has gleaned, which he frankly tells them, they will find fall short of their need, if not of their expectations, The information which maltsters and brewers really need, and which they may imagine they need, are a vi widely distinct things: For those who know the least (asa rule), think they know the most; and such per- sons may believe, that all the information which the volume contains is so much more than they requires but “the more a person knows, the more he wants to know, and the more conscious does he become of his own ignorance ;’? and a perusal of its contents may cause the reader to close it with a desire to learn mure, having learnt therefrom, how small is the portion of knowledge which he has obtained upon these important subjects, as well as the author; and how expansive is the field of enquiry, to the avenues of which he has merely pointed. And if such is the conviction, he may avail himself of the benefits disclosed, and endeavour to extend his researches still further, and thereby satisfy those awakened ideas, which needed but the abrasion of a little information to convert from a state of Jatency to activity. In seeking information for his own benefit, the author has first endeavoured to acquire a knowledge of (what he conceived to be) the rudiments of every science, the number, form, and properties of the ultimate prin- ciples, which compose every terrestial and appertaining substance; the laws which govern their union and separation, and stamp each created thing with their peculiar forms, hues, properties, and characteristics, But this knowledge, the natural basis on which the structure of every science should be reared, is as yet unattainable by man; and although many have ac- quired much, and ventured near the arcanum, yet an impenetrable veil appears to preclude from their meatal vision much which is doubtlessly reserved for the eye of Omniscience alone, But free as air, the human thought, that which is beyond the reach of understanding, has been subjected to hypothesis, and the author hag presumed to select one which appears vil to him to be the most rational among thé many that he has made his choice from, and which, in the Intro- duction, he has submitted to the reader as such. Appropriating the information thus far obtained, to an elucidation of the operations of Nature, in the pro- cess of germination, and vegetation, solution, ex traction, and fermentation, enquiries were induced rélative to the analysis of the various materials whieh become subject to the manufacturing process of the maltster and brewer, into their component substances, and a further division of those substances into their constituent principles, as also the various agents made tributary to each operation. The comparative value of the products of each, and thé best means of obtain- ment, both prompt and economical, subservient to quality, are not forgotten. And in short no efforts have been spared to render him as well informed in every branch of the businees, as time, opportunity, and cir- cumstances, have enabled; and he trasts that the results of his endeavours may prove useful to others. The following is a summary of the information ¢on- tained in the work, which he conceives will be found of prominent value, and not to be met with in any wotk extant upon the subject :— A comprehensive, explicit, conclusive, and satis- factory elucidation of the system of malting both barley and wheat, and valuable suggestions for the itnproves ment of the method of manufacturing each into malts useful information as to the quantity of the product and the relative quality and value of each, with tables for reference, exhibiting their comparative value. In- structions relative to the brewing of wheat malt, mized in any proportion with barley malt, or alone, without admixture, and information as to its produce. The relative value of brown and white wheat malt. Inva- luable instructions for the computation of the proper viii heat of the mashing menstruum for the first mash, under every circumstance, with elaborate tables for use. An improved system of obtaining the extract from malt, combining superiority in quality, with increase in quantity, the obtainment in a shorter period, and at less cost than usual. A cheap and efficacious method of preserving dry hops, serviceable suggestions as to their use, and mode of recovering the malt extract adhering to boiled hops. Description of a refrigerator, (with plate, &c.), invented by the Author, very economical and efficacious in use, and of small cost. Important information relative to the use of yeast, the means of separating the beer from it, the mode of rendering such beer serviceable, the product from a given quantity of yeast furnished. Aclear and consecutive exposition of the theory of fermentation, with full instructions relative to practice on right principles. A {full description of a mode of fermentation in the cask, invented bythe Au- thor, on the self-filling-up principle, an improvement upon the methods usually practised, avoiding the che- mical consequences, from a defect in their arrangements, and ensuring right results on more economical and simple principles. Means by which large quantities of stale beer may be got rid of, without injury, by those who have a stock on hand; and how to avoid an accu- mulation of a stock for the future. General instructions relative to racking and sending out. Much valuable information under the head of Store beer. Full instruc- tions relative to the brewing of porter, of the first-rate quality, and standing high in public estimation. Desira- ble information relative to table beer. An ample descrip- tion of an expeditious and economical system of brewing, with plate, references, &c, theinvention of the Author, with full details of the process, proving the capability of -brewing, with ease, from four quarters of malt up to ix thirty, in the short’space of from 6 to 8 hours ;- or double: brewings from ten anda haif to fourteen hours and a half, by which, quality and quantity.of produce isimproved: and ensured, with economyand saving in the obtainment. Details of the old and new system of brewing are also furnished in juxta pesition, showing the-several points of difference between the two, and the advantages in favor of the new, without the sacrifice of one: benefit secured by the old method. The whole of the mechani- cal arrangements made with. due regard: to chemical consequences, and the greatest simplicity,. combined with the utmost economy, reducing laboug, wear and tear, and cost of fuel. The fittings up of any premises will admit of alterations suitable for the purpose ; and the cost of a new brewery, and the fittings up on such a plan, are considerably below the. cost of building and. fitting up on: usual prineiples; Descriptive particulars of a four quarter brewery, standing on ground measur- ing twenty-two feet by fourteen, eomprising all that is needful for the business, built and fitted up on such. principles about four years since, the total cost of which was under £500, and in which the parties have brewed: from four to twelve quarters of malt, ever since its erection. A superior method. of seasoning new, and purifying old,.and.unsweet casks and utensils. The proceeds of four years’ brewings- (1831-2-3, and 4) for ale only, from barley malt (not any chevalier) of the growth of the southern and western.counties, as per following statement, should have been furnished. in such form also, in the bedy. of the work,.but was omitted for want-of thought. They will serve-te show the value of the system: of. brewing recommended, as- relates to quantity of produce ;:and as regards quality,. I can merely state, that I. have found the improvement. in the latter department not: less than in the former = , “x : and in vroof of ‘the correctness of which, cari furnish ample reference and testimony, if required. Statement, exhibiting the produce of barley malt, in boiled wort, as per tn guage, ascertained by saccha- rometer (Dring and-Fage’s, Long’s,or Swan’s) at the time of pitehing. ‘Quantity mait brewed, Produce perqr. of boiled wort. - Quarters, - Ibs. ths. 52 produced from 72 to 73 per quarter. 10 do. 73 to 74 lo. 64 do. 74 to 75 do. 76 do. 75 to 76 do. 147 do. -96 to -977 do. .21 * do q7 to 78 do. 78 do. 978 to 79 do. 142 do. 79 to 80 do. 265 do. 80 to 81 do. 341 do, 81 to 82 do. 408 do. 82 to 83 do. 475 do. -83 to 64 do. 336 do. 84 to 85 do. 530 do, 85 to 86 do: 565 do. 86 to 87 do, 845 do. 87 to- 88 do. 532 do. 88 to 89 do. 444 do. 89 to 90 do. 249 do. 90 to 91 do. 200 do. 91 to 92 do. 96 do. 92 to 98 do. 52 do; 93 to 94 do. 30 do. 94 to 95 do. 90 do. 98 to 99 do. 0) do. 99 to 100 do. 6141 “The great difference in the quantity of extract ob- ‘tained, as shown by the annexed statement, is not only to be attributed to a great difference in the quality of the malt brewed, but also to the circumstance of a great portion being the produce of brewings to which a retorn wort had been carried over’ from a previous brewing, and (as is ever’ the case) a considerable xi portion of the extract contained in such return wort is coagulated by boiling in the state of admixture with the worts of the second brewing, and such return wort being placed to the credit of the first brewing, and to the debit of the second, renders the produce of the second apparently less, and the first more than it really is. In the body of the work this subject is fully dis- cussed, and the average produce of each year fur- nished; and also the produce of white and brown wheat malt, the proper method of manufacturing and brewing of which, promises, from tbe state of the in- gathering crops, and the probable relative prices and quality of wheat and barley, the coming season; to render every attainable information valuable, in pro- portion to the extent of a brewer’s consumption; and the author is well convinced, that those who do not possess any, or a competent knowlege and experience, of the proper method to malt wheat, and afterwards to brew it on right principles, and who know not the relative value and produce of each species, will find, in this volume, such information relative thereto, as will alone be sufficient to compensate for its cost, provided his consumption of malt is to a moderate extent, PPL FLIP IIPS v better taught ; instructed to pursue ao practical system such as he had learnt, without rule or explanation to reveal the why and wherefore; a mere blind teacher of the blind; a stranger to causes, and ignorant of many important effects ; a detester of theory, and an admirer of only one practical system, and that one his own. Both malting and brewing are chemical operations, and to attain to proficiency in the art, an extensive knowledge of theoretical chemistry, and a slight portion of practical, is necessary. Well grounded in such science, the practitioner becomes acquainted with the laws of Nature, studies her admirable process in germination, vegetation, and fermentation, and takes her as his pattern and guide, and endeavours to imitate her as closely as he possibly can, in the several as- similating operations he is required to perform, He knows her seasons, and adopts them as his own, as well as circumstances admit ; and when compelled to take an inauspicious period for the accomplishment of any operation, he views the dangers, ascertains the difficulties, and by the aid of art accommodates his practice to the occasion, endeavouring thereby to realise the results that he might calculate upon in a more propitious season. Although the author is fully aware what are the requisite attainments, yet he is perfectly conscious that he does not possess them to a desirable extent, or sufficient to render him a competent instructor of others; yet such as he is, he presumes to offer to those who have made less progress than himself in the path of improvement, such information as he has gleaned, which he frankly tells them, they will find fall short of their need, if not of their expectations. The information which maltsters and brewers really need, and which they may imagine (hey need, are viii heat of the mashing menstruum for the first mash, under every circumstance, with elaborate tables for use. An improved system of obtaining the extract from malt, combining superiority in quality, with increase in quantity, the obtainment in a shorter period, and at less cost than usual. A cheap and efficacious method of preserving dry hops, serviceable suggestions as to their use, and mode of recovering the malt extract adhering to boiled hops. Description of a refrigerator, (with plate, &c.), invented by the Author, very economical and efficacious in use, and of small cost. Important information relative to the use of yeast, the means of separating the beer from it, the mode of rendering such beer serviceable, the product from a given quantity of yeast furnished. Aclear and consecutive exposition of the theory of fermentation, with full instructions relative to practice on right principles. A {ull description of a mode of fermentation in the cask, invented bythe Au- thor, on the self-filling-up principle, an improvement upon the methods usually practised, avoiding the che- mical consequences, from a defect in their arrangements, and ensuring right results on more economical and simple principles. Means by which large quantities of stale beer may be got rid of, without injury, by those who have a stock on hand; and how to avoid an accu- mulation of a stock for the future. General instructions relative to racking and sending out. Much valuable information under the head of Store beer. Full instruc- tions relative to the brewing of porter, of the first-rate quality, and standing high in public estimation. Desira- bleinformation relative to table beer. An ample descrip- tion of an expeditious and economical system of brewing, with plate, references, &c. the invention of the Author, with full details of the process, proving the capability of brewing, with ease, from four quarters of malt up to ix thirty, in the short'space of from 6 to 8 hours s- or double: brewings from ten anda half to fourteen hours and a half, by which, quality and quantity. of produce is improved: and ensured, with economyand saving in the obtainment. Details of the-old and new system of brewing are also furnished in juxta position, showing the several points of difference between the two, and the advantages in favor of the new, without the sacrifice of one benefit secured by the old method. The whole of the mechani- cal arrangements made with. due regard to chemical consequences, and the greatest simplicity, combined with the utmost economy, reducing laboug, wear and tear, and cost of fuel. The fittings up of any premises will admit of alterations suitable for the purpose 3 and the cost of a new brewery, and the fittings up on such a plan, are considerably below the cost of building and fitting up on: usual prineiples: Descriptive particulars of a four quarter brewery, standing on ground measur- ing twenty-two feet by fourteen, comprising all that is needful for the business, built and fitted up on such principles about four years since, the total cost of which was under £500, and in which the parties have brewed: from four to twelve quarters of malt, ever since its erection. A superior method. of seasoning new, and purifying old,.and.unsweet casks and utensils. The proceeds of four years’ brewings. (1831-2-3, and 4) for ale only, from barley malt (not any chevalier) of the growth of the southern and western.counties, as per following statement, should have been furnished in such form also, in the bedy. of the work,.but was omitted for want-of thought. They will serve-te show the value of the system of. brewing recommended, as- relates to quantity of. produce ;:and as regards quality,. 1 can merely state, that I. have found the improvement. in the latter department not: less than in the former = , Digitized by Google JT Ee I dognidianil dinmpihe sos ~ as. : =F x I (oe me I 1 Se I L aad | r EM — —s ke U (AR it IL ENTRODUCTION. —3efe— ULTIMATE PRINCIPLES. Azt known substances are in a state denominated’ either as solid, fluid; or gaseous.. In either state they are compounds of an aggregate assemblage of particles, eohering together, subject to the power and limitation of (what are called) the laws of Nature. , The division of such particles into classes is not, per- haps, yet completed; but the division with which we are best acqnainted, (and which may be sufficient for. the purpose of this work), is as follows :—Caloric (heat), Light, Oxyggn, Nitrogen, Hydrogen, and Carbon. The particles of which all substances are compesed,- are called “ultimate principles.” Particles possessing distinct and separate properties, . may be found to exist in an unmixed state, in some of the gases ; but in solids and fluids, never. All solids and fluids, and many of the gases, are com- pounds of particles, possessing different properties. The purport of the classification is to designate their: respective properties. All solids and fluids are reducible, by the aid of Caloric, into gases. . By such a reduction, the properties and quantities of timate principles, of which solids and fluids and some of the gases are composed, may be ascertained: and such process is termed Analytical. c Compound gases may be resolved into simple gases, and the properties and quantities of the ultimate prin- eiples, which constitute the compound, may be ascer- tained. . * The properties and quantities of the ultimate princi- ples, of which some bodies are composed, having been ascertained by analysis; similar bodies may be formed by the union of a proper proportion of proper gases ; either a compound gas, a fluid, or a solid. Th t, by an admixture of simple gases; the two lattet, by such an admixture; and a subsequent abstraction of Caloric, in the ratio needed, to constitute either the fluid or solid: and such a process is termed Synthetical. The forms and sizes of particles, denominated ultimate principles, are unknown. They may be Spherical: they may differ in size: the case must be conjectural: the hypothesis. which I have framed for myself is, that they are Spherical; that they differ in size; and that thd particles of Caloric and Light are infinitely smaller than the particles of Oxygen, Nitrogen, Hydrogen, and Carbon. POLL L LLL e THE LAWS TO WHICH ULTIMATE PRINCIPLES ARE SUBJECT. Simpre Arrraction.—The power which causes two particles at a distance from each other, to leave their places, and unite themselves to each other. ATTRACTION or AceREGATION.—The power by which such two particles, when united together, attract other particles to themselves, they remaining immoveable, and causing single particles to leave their places, and unite themselves to them. Attraction or Conssion —The power by which two ormore particles, which have been united by simple @ aggregate attraction, until separated by a superior power. 3 Seraration.—The power by which two or more par- ticles, which have been united by simple or aggregate attraction, and which remain united by attraction of cohesion, are again disunited. Equauization.—The law to which Caloric is subject, and by which it effects combustion in such bodies as are partially or totally destroyed or changed by heat. By this Law, ifone body possesses more Caloric than ano- ther in its vicinity, a transition from that which posses- ses most, to that which possesses least, will occur, antil the quantity in each becomes equal. This transition, from the former to the latter, may be sufficient to over- power the attraction of cohesion, by which the ultimate principles, of which that body is composed, cohere together. The quantity transfered may be sufficient to destroy the attraction of cohesion, which, previous to the transfer, caused the solidity of that body, and thereby the solid may be converted into a fluid, or gas, or vapour: and the transfer may be equal ta the over- powering of attraction of aggregation, and simple attraction. . ILLustratron.—Ice is a solid 3 because the ultimate principles of which it is composed, cohere together, being subject to the power of attraction of cohesion. Convert it into water by the impartation of Caloric, and you thereby overcome the power of attraction of cohe- sion, and have converted the solid into a fluid by the addition of particles of Caluric, which have separated the ultimate principles one from the other; and as attraction of cohesion does not exist between the par- ticles of Caloric, and the ultimate principles of which bodies are composed, fluidity is in this case the conse- quence; and for the sake of clear illustration, the particles of Caloric may be compared to so many friction rollers, by which the ultimate principles are enabled to move freely among themselves, and thereby Caloric 4 -confers the property of fluidity, Continue the imparta- tion, and the ultimate principles are still further separa- ted, and the process may be continued until steam is the product; yet aggregate and simple attraction is not | ‘overcome, while as steam it continues, Reverse the process, and abstract Caloric from steam, and you con- -vert it into water, and this process is called Condensa- tion. Continue the abstraction, and you may convert ‘the water into ice ; the fluid into a solid. Place ice ina vessel over fuel iu a state of combustion, and the Caloric, converted trem a state of latency into activity by the -decomposition of that fuel, will pass through the inters- tices presented by the ultimate principles, cohering together, of which the vessel is composed; and enter into the interstices presented by the ultimate principles, _ -cohering together, of which the ice is composed. Such transition of Caloric from the fuel to the ice, is induced “by the law uf equalization. Before this ice is melted, to every) pound of it, particles of Caloric, sufficient to aise the mercury in a thermometer 140 degrees, must pass from the burning fuel to the ice; andit will then be ‘found that thisice, which by the thermometer indicated ‘a temperature of 32 degrees previous to the impar- tation of Caloric, still indicates 82 degrees the moment -it has been all converted into water ; and the reason is, because the 0 degrees of free Caloric, which has deen imparted to every pound ofit, has, uponits entrance dnto the ice, become latent. Such quantity of ‘Caloric, is denominated the:Caloric of Fluidity. A continuation of the transition may occur, until vapour or steam arises from the upper surface of the waters the tempe- rature of-which, under the ordinary pressure of the Atmosphere, is 212 degrees: and vapour, at this tem- perature, may leave the body of water long before the temperature of the whole body is equal to it; because ahe particles.of Caluric which permeate the-bottom of 5 the vessel, ascend through the body of the water, un- til they reach the upper surface, and thereby the temperature of the upper surface attains to 212 degrees, before the lower strata, and unless the impartation of Caloric to the whvle body of water, is more rapid than its eecape from its surface; the whole body of water may be converted into vapour, or steam, and the ree maining bulk never indicate the temperature of 212 degrees, Water is said to evaporate by boiling, when the temperature of the whole bulk is at 212 degrees and it is ina state of ebullition. And itis said to eva- porate by simmering, when the temperature of the whole bulk is at any point below 212 degrees, and steam leaves its upper surface. Gravitation.—The power by which all bodies, and the ultimate principles of which all bodies are composed, have a tendency to fall towards the centre of the earth, counteracted and opposed only by the law of equaliza- - tion, to which Caloric is subject. The effect of gravita- tion is, to cause all bodies to fall towards the centre of the earth, with a force and celerity proportionate te their specific gravity. .The effect of equalization to which Caloric is subject, is to enable an additional quantity of Caloric to enter a body, and thereby de- crease the specific gravity of that body, provided the additional quantity of Caloric which enters, is sufficient to separate all or any part of the ultimate principles of which it is composed, one from the other. For as Ca- loric is not ponderable, however great the quantity im- parted to a body, the statical weight of such body is mot increased thereby. And if the impartation of Caloric is sufficient to separate the ultimate principles, of which such body is composed, one from the other, then such ultimate principles must necessarily occupy more space in the fluid medium in which such body ex” ists. Andas the impartation of Caloric to a by may a 6 be continued, until such body by expansion, (the conse- quence of such impartation,) is so far increased in bulk, as to become specifically lighter than the same bulk of the fluid medium in which it exists; it will therefore rise in such fluid medium, until the specific gravity of both are equal, or until tbe body floats on the upper surface of that medium, if the medium is of greater specific gravity than the body. On this principle, ’ therefore, it may be said, that equalization, to which Caloric is subject, counteracts and opposes gravitation. ILLustration.—Water, by the power of gravitation, descends towards the centre of the earth, and is only prevented from reaching it, by its inability to percolate a variety of intervening substances. Water being in close contact, or within a short distance of any body possessing a large quantity of Caloric, in a state of freedom; by the law of equalization, as much Caloric will pass from that body to the water, as will render both of an equal temperature, provided the quantity, existing in the body, is not more than sufficient to raise the temperature of any portion of such water above 212 degrees. But if the quantity of Caloric, contained in that body, is more than sufficient to raise any part or the whole of that water to 212 degrees; then a por- tion, or the whole of such water, will be converted into steam. This conversion of water into steam, consists in separating the ultimate principles of which the water is composed, by the impartation of particles of Caloric, sufficiently far apart, as to render the ultimate princi- ples, and particles of Caloric, collectively, lighter than an equal bulk of Atmospheric air, which they have dis- placed. Such being the case, it rises in that Atmos- pheric air, by which it is surreunded, and continues to ascend, until it reaches a point where the specific gra- vity of both are equal. Thus, therefore, this water, which Sy the power of gravitation, had a tendency to 7 fall toward the centre of the earth; is causedby the power of equalization, to which Caloric is subject, to ascend and recede from its centre, But the same law of equalization, to which Caloric is subject, and which has caused water, inthe form of steam, to recede from the centre of the earth; ope- rates again to cause its descent towards it. For in the ascent of steam in Atmospheric air, the Caloric, which enabled it to ascend, is soon abstracted by that air ; the Caloric, in obedience to the law of equalization, quitting the steam to pass into the surrounding air. By this process, the ultimate principles are enabled to obey the law of attraction of aggregation, and unite together in separate aggregate quantities called drops, flakes, or crystallic solids, and descend by the power of gravitation towards the centre of the earth, as rain snow, or hail. PP PLD PD PPD LE SOLIDS, FLUIDS, AND GASES OR VAPOURS. All known substances may be divided into three Classes :—Solids, Fluids, and Gases or Vapours. A solid is a substance composed of an assemblage of spherical particles, called ultimate principles, united together by simple and aggregate attraction ; and re- maining united by attraction of cohesion. ’ To constitute and continue a body solid, it is neces- sary that such particles should touch each other. A number of spherical particles touching each other, must necessarily presenta number of interstices. The par- ticles of Caloric and light being also spherical, but much smaller than the particles called ultimate principles, are able, and do enter, by the law of equalization and affinity, into the interstices presented by the union of the ultimate principles, of which the body is composed. Now if no more particles of Caloric enter into these 8 interstices than is sufficient to partly or quite fill them, then such body will remain solid, because the ultimate principles of which it is composed touch each other ; and adhere together by attraction of cohesion. A fluid may be composed of precisely the same ulti- mate principles as a solid. Indeed! to convert some solids into fluids; nothing more is necessary than to impart to such solids a sufficient number of particles of Caloric, as will more than fill the interstices. If this is done, the attraction of cohesion, which held united the ultimate principles, must yield to the superior se- parating force of the Caloric, compelled to enter by the law of equalization. Attraction of cohesion, being by this means paralyzed, or held in subjection; the particles, (called ultimate principles) are enabled to move freely among the particles of Caloric, as attracti- on of cohesion does not subsist between the particles of Caloric, and the particles, called ultimate principles, “It is this freedom of motion of the particles, which constitute a body, which gives to it properties, where- by we distinguish it from asolid, and denominate it a fluid. A gas or vapour may also be composed of precisely the same ultimate principles as a solid or fluid. A solid may first be converted into a fluid, by the impartation of a sufficient quantity of Caloric, and subsequently in- to a gas or.vapour, by the impartation of an additional . quantity of Caloric. Or a-solid may be converted into @ gas or vapour, without the intervening process of con- verting the solid into aliquid. But in either case, the impartation of Caloric is necessary for the purpose. The distinguishing properties of a gas or vapour, are less specific gravity, and greater elasticity than a fluid or solid. PPLDIL LOD LT 9 THE LAWS TO WHICH SOLIDS, FLUIDS, AND - GASES ARE SUBJECT. Aryiuity ano Comsustion.—By the Law of affinity, bodies are formed and destroyed. By the law of affinity, ultimate principles unite ; and by accretion, become bodies. ‘One body may be surrounded by other bodies, and the affinity existing between the ultimate principles of which such body is | osed, and the ultimate princi- ples of which the nding bodies are composed, may cause the ultimate principles, of which the single body is composed, to disunite themselves from the single body, and unite themselves to the other bodies, and continue se to do, until the single body is quite destroy- ed. By the law of combustion, bodies are formed and destroyed. — The decomposition of a body by combustion or other- wise, is but the separation of the ultimate principles, of which such body is composed, one from the other. And as guch ultimate principles are indestructible, they must necessarily after such separation, become the component parts of other bodies. The term combustion, as applied to the destruction of bodies, is by some used in a general sense, and by others in a single; for perspicuity, I woul® apply it ia the single. By the term combustion, may be understood the destruction of a body, by the impartation of Caloric ; such impartation causing the ultimate principles, of which a body is composed, to separate sufficiently far from each other, as to place themebeyond the precincts of simple attraction; the result being—the destruction | of that body. By affinity and combustion, bodies may not always be. destroyed altogether, but partially. By affinity or Combustion, a body may not be partially 10 destroyed, but mercly changed in its characteristics ana properties. . . The total or partial destruction, or change in the characteristics and properties of bodies, may be attri- ‘buted to the power of equalization to which Caloric is subject.. Such an effect. may result from the operations -of nature, or the wozk of man, by the agency of natural -means. CALORIC Mn Caloric prevades all bodies; as a constituent principle. in bodies, it exists in a latent state; as a non-constituent principle, it exists in them in an active state. ’ Its particles are supposed to be infinitely small, and muuch smaller than the ultimate principles, called Oxy- gen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Carbon, and sufficiently -80, a8 to be able to pass into and through the interstices - presented by the union of the ultimate principles, with- out displacing them. But a separation will occur, when ‘Caloric enters a body more rapidly than it can leave it, and in quantity sufficient to overcome the attraction of Cohesion. _ It is supposed to proceed originally from the Sun, which by some is'-considered to be a body of fire; by others, an habitable globe, surrounded by a phosphores- ‘cent atmosphere, imparting heat and light. Caloric is supposed to move at therate of 200,000 miles in a second sof time. , Latent and active Caloric are arbitrary terms, given te express one and themame principle, occasionally exist- ing in either state. Latent, when undisturbed, and existing in a body as a constituent principle, and which can only be separated from. it, by the partial or total destruction of such body; and active, when disturbed ‘by combustion partially.or totally dgtroying the body in 11 which it existedas a component principle, and ‘thereby. setting it at liberty. Caloric being subject to the law of equalization, is. everina state of motion, or liable thereto. By the law of equalization, may be understood the power by which Caloric will pass from one body, which~ possesses tnost, to another body, which possesses least Galoric in an active state, until both bodies possess an equal quantity of active Caloric. Some bodies possess. more latent Caloric than other bodies, as a necessary constituent of the compound, in its natural state ; such latent Caloric is not subject to the law of equalization,. until all the aetive Caloric, which such body may possess,. fs first abstracted. Thus we maysay, that all bodies possers a necessary and natural quagtity of resident Galoric, not subject to abstraction, iw superfluous quantity, which such. bodies may possess, is first ab-. stracted. The resident quantityis termed latent ; the superfluous quantity, ac